Solar Energy, the global hunt for profits, farmers, communities. A two-part exploration and explanation.
“Agriculture is our wisest pursuit, because it will in the end contribute
most to real wealth, good morals, and happiness.”
-Thomas Jefferson
PART TWO
UNDERSTANDING BRITISH AGRICULTURE and GOVERNMENT PRIORITIES
I needed to better understand British agriculture now, with solar energy and government priorities. As a child in Wiltshire, I helped stook the sheaves of corn and chased harvest mice. Collected mushrooms on the dairy farm fields. Since those days in the 1950s agriculture has evolved, mechanised, become intensive. It is a long way from the first farmers on Salisbury Plain with a cultivation-friendly climate about 3,500 years ago, during Britain’s Bronze Age, when crop growing came back after a cold period, so the scientists now believe. Farming villages rapidly replaced a mobile, herding way of life. This is my search for information on Britain‘s agriculture in the next 40 years, and the changes envisaged by the need for renewable energy, and food and the effect on communities and farmers.
The UK currently produces the equivalent of about 60% of domestic consumption by value, part of which is exported. About 54% of food on plates is produced in the UK, including the majority of grains, meat, dairy, and eggs. See excellent report https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/6331b071e90e0711d5d595df/AUK_Evidence_Pack_2021_Sept22.pdf. Agriculture provides half of the food we eat, employs almost half a million people and is a key part of the food and drink sector.
Since 1988, the amount of food consumed in the UK of UK origin has fallen from 66% to 58% and the amount of food consumed of EU origin has risen from 18% to 23% over the same period. However, food of UK origin rose 4% and food from EU origin decreased 5% in 2021 compared to 2020. The amount of food consumed from each region outside the UK and EU has remained stable over time.
Origins of food consumed in the United Kingdom, based on the farm-gate value of raw food.
58% UK
23% EU
5% Africa
4% Asia
3% North America3% Rest of Europe
Food is exerting greater pressure on household budgets since 2007 when food prices started to rise in real terms. Averaged over all households 11% of spend went on food in 2019/20, however this proportion is higher for lower income households (15%) who are disproportionately affected by food price rises. Successive spikes in the price of agricultural commodities since 2007 have led to higher retail food prices. They have not returned to the low price levels of pre-2007. Oil prices also rose over this period, and inflation was higher than historically, but food prices have risen above inflation.
In a Defra report (Defra Agriculture in the United Kingdom (AUK) 2020), the production to supply ratio is estimated to be 60% for all food in 2020 and 76% for indigenous type food (that which can be commercially grown domestically). Actual consumption of UK-produced food is closer to 54%, as a part of UK production is exported. From a peak in the mid-1980s the production to supply ratio declined into the early 2000s and has not changed significantly since then. Market prices and the economics and risks inherent in agricultural production have led the ratio to settle at about 60%. Alterations in the proportion of domestic production to supply would change the level of exposure to national scale risks, including climate change and extreme weather events.
In June 2020, 71% of the UK’s land, or 17.3 million hectares (ha), was used for agricultural production, of which 72% was grassland and 26% cropland, with the remainder being set-aside or fallow land. Trends in land use have been generally stable over the last 30 years, but climate change poses a threat to high quality arable farmland and competition for land use is increasing. (See end of article for size measurements).
The majority of the UK’s croppable land is used for grain production (3 million ha), with 415,000 ha used for oilseed, 142,000 ha for potatoes, 166,000 ha for horticultural crops, and 719,000 ha for other crops in 2020. Much of the annual variation between specific crops is due to factors such as the weather and prices rather than any long-term and more systematic variation, such as crop rotation. An exception is the decline since 2018 in land given over to oilseeds, which partly reflects increased pesticide resistance among stem flea beetles and the withdrawal of neonicotinoid insecticides. An increase in ‘Other crops’ suggests farmers are planting a larger variety of crops than previously.
In 2020, the UK imported 46% of the food it consumed. No one country provides more than 11% of those imports, a picture which has been stable for some time. By value, £48 billion of FFD (Food, Feed and Drink) was imported and £21.4 billion was exported.
The make-up of leading trading partners has been very stable over many years, with occasional intermittent small changes to the order of the top 10. The departure of the UK from the European Union and the Single Market on 1 January 2021 has changed the rules and regulations that govern export and import processes with the EU, and in 2020, COVID-19- had a temporary impact on availability of some products, like pasta and eggs. Changes have also been evident to trade patterns between GB and Northern Ireland as a result of the Northern Ireland Protocol (NIP). Geographical proximity will still be a major factor in trading arrangements, particularly for relatively low-value short shelf-life products.
EU countries continue to be the main source for FFD imports and are therefore essential to the UK’s food security. 39% of FFD imports by value were despatched from 4 EU countries (the Netherlands, Republic of Ireland, Germany, and France) in 2020. Data on imports shows the continued importance of the EU for food imports. In winter months countries in the south of the EU are particularly significant in terms of fruit and vegetables and the nutritional value and consumer choice those products provide. The UK’s food supply is concentrated on the UK and EU countries, with over 80% of supply coming from these main sources. The remainder is mostly spread fairly evenly between Africa, Asia, North America, and South America. This picture has changed little in the last 10 years.
The UK is largely self-sufficient in grain production. Production of grains is dependent on weather conditions and can be volatile year to year but is fairly stable in the long term. Yields were unusually low in 2020 due to bad weather, but provisional results for 2021 show a return to the 5-year average. Wheat plays a vital part in the UK’s diet, environment and economy, accounting for about 30% of daily food energy intake per person in the UK during 1961 to 2011. The UK is largely self-sufficient in barley and oats, and 81% self-sufficient in milling wheat (slightly higher for wheat overall), which is the most significant grain crop for food consumption in the UK. It is not likely or desirable for this figure of 81% to rise much higher, as the remaining percentage is largely made up of hard wheat types not suited to the UK’s climate and soils. Further to this, global competition in wheat production and prices means there is significant economic risk involved with trying to fully meet domestic milling needs, since any surplus could be undervalued relative to the costs incurred during production. UK farmers instead grow what they are best able to, a mix of milling and feed wheat according to market demand and prevailing weather conditions.
There will increasingly be initiatives to generate lab grown food resources from both organic substrates some derived from fossil fuels but we are a long way off sustaining ourselves with what some people are calling “Frankenstein” foods.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE IN UK
Climate change and emissions pose significant risks to production and food security. Climate change poses a risk to UK food production already, and this risk will grow substantially over the next 30 to 60 years. Minimising the extent of global warming and addressing the risks it poses to food production are both essential to future food security. Ozone in the lower atmosphere causes yield loss every year, particularly in Southern and Eastern England.
As a consequence of unusual weather patterns associated with climate change, wheat yields in 2018 were 7% below the 2016 to 2020 average, and in 2020 were 17% below that average. Ozone in the low atmosphere has a separate, ongoing effect on yields; total economic losses for wheat, potato, and oilseed rape in the UK caused by damage due to ozone may have been over £185 million in 2018, with more than 97% of losses occurring in England. Longer growing seasons and warmer temperatures may have some positive effects for particular crops and regions, but overall risk magnitude is assessed to increase from medium at present to high in future. Increased climate exposure (including heat stress, drought risk, and wetness-related risks) is modifying productive capacity and will continue to do so in future in line with the degrees of warming experienced. The severity of risk to agriculture from climate change could further increase if mitigation efforts are ineffective in preventing non-linear threshold effects and ‘tipping points’ in global systems.
WASTE
The Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP) is a charity established in 2000 which works on reducing food, clothing, and packaging waste, recycling, and improving the entire lifecycle of food consumed in the UK. WRAP monitors food waste throughout the supply chain. Since 2007, there have been large-scale interventions aimed at reducing food waste across supply chains and households in the UK. WRAP estimates that this may have contributed to a reduction in post farmgate total food waste between 2007 and 2018 of around 15% (1.7Mt). Total post farmgate food waste in the UK was 476,000 tonnes lower in 2018 compared to 2015 which equates to a 4.8% reduction (10Mt down to 9.5Mt).
The UK has a commitment to UN Sustainable Development Goal 12.3 and the Courtauld Commitment 2030 to reduce per capita food system waste by 50% by 2030 (alongside targets on greenhouse gas emissions and water use).
With thanks to: Gov.uk Agri- Environment Evidence Annual Report 2023
GOVERNMENT TARGETS FOR SOLAR POWER
LINKING TO STOP LIME DOWN
See: https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7434/CBP-7434.pdf
20 May 2024 Felicia Rankl
In the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK Government set a legally binding target to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by 80% by 2050, compared with 1990 levels. In 2019, the UK Government raised the 80% target to a 100% target by 2050. This is referred to as the net zero target. One of the main ways in which the government proposes to meet its net zero target is by reducing its reliance on fossil fuels and increasing the use of renewable and low-carbon energy sources, such as wind and solar power.
To meet its sixth carbon budget (a 78% reduction in emissions compared to 1990 levels by 2035), the government’s advisory Climate Change Committee estimated that solar power would need to provide 60 terawatt hours (TWh) of energy by 2035. It also estimated that an additional 3 gigawatt (GW) of solar power would need to be installed per year to reach that level.
70 gigawatt (GW) of solar power by 2035
One of the government’s aims is to “ramp up” the deployment of rooftop and ground-mounted solar systems to achieve a fivefold increase in solar power by 2035 (from 14 GW in 2022 to 70 GW. One of the main ways in which the government proposes to meet its net zero target is by:
- reducing its reliance on fossil fuels and
- renewable and low-carbon energy sources, such as wind and solar power
- increasing the use of the widespread deployment of rooftop solar on commercial and industrial properties.
- the large-scale deployment of ground-mounted solar on brownfield, industrial, and low- and medium-grade agricultural land.
The government said an “effective planning system” was needed to maximise the deployment of renewable energy. To achieve its aim of a fivefold increase in solar power by 2035, the government said it was “committed to ensuring faster, fairer and more effective planning regimes”.
Most large-scale solar systems (that have a capacity of at least 1 MW) in the UK are ground-mounted (94.5%; 1,145 systems). Only 5.5% (67 solar systems with a capacity of at least 1 MW) are installed on rooftops. These figures do not include small-scale solar systems (that have a capacity up to 1 MW) that are installed by households or businesses. The distribution of ground-mounted solar farms in the UK with a capacity of at least 1 MW is shown in the map below information from https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-7434/CBP-7434.pdf
Planning for solar farms
Of the ground-mounted solar farms that are either operational or have been granted planning permission and are under/awaiting construction, 28% are located in the South West of England and 15% in the South East of England. This is followed by the East of England, where around 13% of solar farms are sited, and the East Midlands, also 13%. 9% are located in Wales.
There are fewer solar farms in the northern regions of England and in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where weather patterns are less suited to solar power. It is not possible to say how much land is used for solar farms, because the government’s renewable energy planning database does not record the total area of each solar farm. The government estimates that a typical solar farm requires between two and four acres of land for each MW of output. It also estimates that a 50 MW solar farm consisting of around 100,000 to 150,000 panels will cover between 125 and 200 acres.
In the most up-to-date Commons Library Research Briefing, 20 May 2024
The majority of respondents (88%) surveyed by the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ) in spring 2023 expressed general support for the use of solar power in the UK. However, only around half (54%) of those surveyed said they would be happy about a solar farm in their local area.
Therefore, broad trends in public attitudes towards solar power do not always reflect community-level support for solar farms. In evidence submitted to the Environmental Audit Committee, developers highlighted that a lack of public acceptance can sometimes pose a barrier to developments. The government also notes that local opposition to proposed solar farms can lead to delays in planning decisions and legal challenges. This can increase the cost of projects and, in some cases, result in projects being abandoned.
Campaign groups formed in opposition to solar farms in their local area cite the use of “inappropriate sites”, such as agricultural land or landscapes of high environmental or heritage value, as the reason for their opposition. In situations like this where clearly there are disadvantages in changes to land use, communities need to be convinced that there are real gains to be made from development besides simply supplying electrical energy, which includes biodiversity, an aspect which is often lacking in present day crop monoculture and industrial intensive farming. Wider distribution of returns on investment in exchange for the right of access to farmland for alternative land uses also needs to be more transparent.
HOW ARE PLANNING DECISIONS MADE?
One important material consideration is the government’s National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF). It also provides a framework that can guide LPA (Local Planning Authority) in drawing up their local plans. The NPPF states that the planning system should promote renewable energy and associated infrastructure.
Planning considerations: Siting and impact
The NPPF advises LPAs to identify “suitable areas” for renewable energy projects. Supplementary planning guidance on renewable and low-carbon energy states that “there are no hard and fast rules” on how LPAs should identify suitable areas, however, it states that they should take into account the potential impacts of solar farms on the local environment.
- Supplementary planning guidance on renewable and low-carbon energy sets out what LPAs should consider when assessing planning applications for solar farms and drawing up their local plans: the impact of solar panels on local amenity and local landscapes, including cumulative impacts of large-scale solar farms.
- the impact of solar farms on protected areas, such as National Parks and National Landscapes (formerly Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty).
- that the need for renewable energy does not automatically override environmental protections.
- the siting, size, colour and design of solar systems.
- the visual impact of solar farms, in particular their impact on the local landscape in terms of “glint and glare” and on neighbouring uses.
Large-scale solar farms (over 50 MW)
Under the Planning Act 2008, as amended by the Localism Act 2011, major energy projects are considered ‘nationally significant infrastructure projects’ (NSIPs). They require ‘development consent’ from the Secretary of State for Energy Security and Net Zero. Solar farms with a generating capacity over 50 MW are considered NSIPs.
Applications for NSIPs are made to the National Infrastructure Directorate at the Planning Inspectorate. It will carry out an examination of the project and provide a report to the Secretary of State to help inform their decision. The final decision whether to grant, or refuse, development consent rests with the Secretary of State. If development consent is given, there is no requirement to obtain other consents, such as planning permission.
To meet the government’s target of 70 GW of solar power by 2035, the CPRE (Campaign for Protection of Rural England) estimated that between 0.9% and 1.4% of all the land in England (180,000 hectares or 1,800 square kilometres) would be required. In this analysis, CPRE did not set out how much agricultural land (or how much BMV “Best and Most Versatile”- land) compared to other types of land would be required.
Solar Energy UK estimated that, assuming an average of six acres (around 2.4 hectares) are needed per MW of solar power, existing solar farms which have a total capacity of 10 GW currently cover around 230 square kilometres in the UK. This amounts to 0.1% of the UK’s total land area. Solar Energy UK also estimated that, to meet the government’s target of 70 GW of solar power by 2035, further 464 square kilometres would be required for new solar farms. For this analysis, it assumed that ground-mounted solar farms will account for around two thirds of the required increase (or 38 GW) and new solar farms would need three acres (around 1.2 hectares) per MW. In total, Solar Energy UK estimated that around 700 square kilometres of land in the UK (0.3% of the UK’s total land area) would host solar farms in 2035.
Carbon Brief, a news website focusing on climate change and energy policies, estimated that if these 700 square kilometres were used to grow wheat, “this would account for just 4% of the UK’s annual wheat yield”. It concluded that the impact of solar farms on food production would be small.
University of Sheffield, Open Climate Fix and Exawatt also estimated to what extent agriculture land of differing qualities overlapped with the ease with which solar developments could gain access to grid connections. They found that over half of grade 1 and 2 agricultural land (excellent and very good quality land that is considered BMV land) were suitable for solar farms based on the ease of gaining a grid connection. Using the same metric, 44% of grade 3 land (moderate and good quality land) and a third of grade 4 land (poor quality land that is not BMV land) would be suitable for solar farms.
Statement on use of agricultural land for solar farms
The government published a written statement in May 2024, in which it offered further guidance on the use of BMV land for solar farms instead of food production. It said it expected developers to minimise the use of BMV land and use poorer-quality over higher-quality agricultural land. The government also said that decision-makers should give “due weight” to the use of BMV land when making decisions about land use. They should not only consider the impacts of individual projects but also cumulative impacts “where several proposals come forward in the same locality”.
Stakeholder views
The statement was welcomed by the Countryside Alliance, which promotes issues related to the countryside such as farming. The organisation said it was important for “food production to remain the primary use of productive agricultural land”.
Renewable energy groups, such as Solar Energy UK and the Association for Renewable Energy and Clean Technology (REA), said the statement did not significantly change planning and land use policies. They reiterated, however, that solar farms “are no threat to food security” and that they “only take up a tiny fraction of all the UK’s agricultural land”. REA said restricting land use for solar farms could affect the government’s ability to meet its net zero target.
Calls for a land use framework
In its report on Making the most out of England’s land (PDF, December 2022), the Lords Land Use Committee called on the government to develop a land use framework to identify what land should be used for which purposes. The committee noted that, although the NPPF discourages the development of BMV land, “too many exceptions are being made”. It recommended that the government should put in place “stricter regulations to prevent the development of solar farms on BMV land” and adopt “a consistent policy” to promote the installation of solar panels on the rooftops of buildings.
Lack of grid capacity and difficulty securing grid connections
One of the major barriers to the expansion of solar power are difficulties in securing grid connections (in part because of a lack of grid capacity). To supply power to consumers, energy generators need to be connected to either the transmission or the distribution network. This requires approval from the DNOs (Distribution Network Operators, are the organisations that own and control the electricity distribution network), connecting generators, suppliers, energy users and consumers, National Grid or both. Renewable energy companies highlighted difficulties connecting to both the transmission and distribution network and that DNOs and National Grid were unable to provide the connections required. For example, Solar Energy UK, which represents solar energy companies, found in a survey of its members in 2022 that grid connection issues had delayed at least 40 projects. Energy
UK, the energy industry’s trade association, found that “wait times for grid connections can be more [than] six years, in some cases up to 10 years”.
Renewable energy groups have therefore said that a lack of grid capacity and delays to grid connections had become a “significant source of uncertainty” for developers and added “major costs and delays” to their projects. These groups have called on the government to review the way the grid is planned and developed, stating that the current system was “not fit for purpose”.
Committee report and government response In its inquiry into onshore solar energy, the Environmental Audit Committee found that three main issues that had emerged:
- A lack of physical infrastructure, such as cables, transformers and sub- stations, to distribute electricity.
- The queuing system. To be connected to the grid, generators need to make an application to National Grid or the DNO. Developers can make applications for projects that have not yet secured planning permission, which may “clog” the queue with projects that will not be completed.
- A lack of available data on solar installations, which can make it difficult to plan for and invest in grid infrastructure in the right location.
WHAT IS MISSING? My final thought
Meaningful community engagement and the whole aspect of community payment from the developers, to be used for community energy enhancement. Even more important is a proper regulatory framework and taxation to ensure profits are shared through proper taxation to the UK treasury! This is important for all forms of renewable energy…wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, ocean, and biopower.
Measurements. Just in case you are confused!
Hectare, (ha) unit of area in the metric system equal to 100 ares, or 10,000 square metres, and the equivalent of 2.471 acres in the British Imperial System. The hectare is a unit of area equal to a square with 100-metre sides (1 hm2), that is, 10,000 square metres (10,000 m2)
Acre, unit of land measurement in the British Imperial and United States Customary systems, equal to 43.560 square feet or 4,840 square yards. One acre is equivalent to 0.4047 hectare (4,047 square metres)
Sally Campbell
August 2024
